Resource Database

Evaluation of recreational value to a restored wetland ecosystem based on mobile signaling data

In order to protect the ecosystem services of coal mining subsidence wetlands effectively, scholars are trying to quantify the valuation of their ecosystem services. The most challenging task is valuing the cultural ecosystem services, as reliable and effective data are often obtained difficulty. Therefore, this paper introduced mobile phone signaling data into the travel cost method and constructed the evaluation model of recreational services to subsidence wetlands. By utilizing the mobile phone signaling data, to explore the recreational participants’ duration of stay, the start and endpoint coordinates, movement trajectory and so on, this paper estimated each participant’s possible cost. Meanwhile, the empirical study was carried out in 2018 with a sample size of 25,087 recreational participants in Pan’an Lake wetland park, Xuzhou City, China. The data mining showed that: (1) Mobile signaling data has a unique advantage in determining the travel distance and accommodation of recreational participants; (2) The participants were distributed over 229 cities, but 87.2% came from a nearby city within 300km, and 72.04% were Xuzhou natives; (3) The average consumer surplus was about 132.75 China Yuan (CNY), with an average cost of 308.11 CNY for an individual recreational activity. The results showed that the recreational value of Pan’an Lake was about 823 million CNY in 2018. The results are similar to the recreational value of wetland parks in China and abroad, which indicated that the mobile phone signaling data can be used as a new data source in estimating the wetland park’s recreational valuation.

The recovery of forest structure in a semi-arid mine dump: Estimation based on Worldview-2 satellite data

Structural parameters are key indicators for the resilience and diversity of restored forest ecosystems. However, there is a lack of studies to illustrate the recovery of the structural parameters due to the absence of long-term monitoring after restoration. This study used Worldview-2 satellite data and developed an Evolutionary Algorithm-Neural Network Model to estimate coverage, biomass, and spatial structure in a semi-arid mine dump. The results show that the spectral and textural information from Worldview-2 image could effectively estimate the three structural parameters with determinant coefficients of 0.91, 0.86 and 0.62, respectively. With increase of restoration age, the structural parameters of the restored forest increased. After 23 years, the average coverage, biomass, and spatial structure reached 0.80, 27.5 kg/m² and 0.45, which were 266.6%, 245.5%, 300.0% higher than the reference sites. Among different reforestation patterns, the single forest of Pinus tabuliformis Carr. or Hippophae rhamnoides Linn. have highest coverage (0.98) and biomass (45.8 kg/m²) but the lowest spatial structure 0.22. The mixed forest (Populus L. and Pinus tabuliformis Carr.) has the highest coverage, biomass and spatial structure of 0.90, 34.9 kg/m² and 0.78. These results suggest that restoration interventions could effectively restore the forest structure in a semi-arid mine dump. However, there exist trade-offs among coverage, biomass, and spatial structure. The pattern of mixed forest is beneficial for forest regeneration. This study also demonstrates that the satellite imagery-based model and data have potential advantages for monitoring recovery and guiding the improvement of restored forest and possibly other restoration sites.

Soil properties and plant communities of mine dumps following technical reclamation, spontaneous revegetation, and near-natural restoration on the Loess Plateau, China

Mining activities have caused severe damage to the ecosystem and left large amounts of mine dumps to be restored. Technical reclamation (TR), spontaneous revegetation (SR) and near-natural restoration (NNR) were the main approaches applied in the ecological restoration of mining dumps, however, the effectiveness of these methods on improving soil and promoting vegetation succession was not well understood. To address this, we compared the soil properties and plant communities of technically reclaimed, spontaneously revegetated and near-natural restored mine dumps located on the Loess Plateau, China. Soil backfilling and tillage were performed both in TR and NNR, while cultivation of various plants and management were only included in the technical approaches. Field investigation, soil sampling, and chemical analysis were undertaken, while plant species, diversity, biomass, soil moisture, bulk density, heavy metal content, as well as organic carbon etc. were determined to assess plant communities and soil properties. Results showed that the near-natural restored dump had the highest plant diversity, followed by spontaneously revegetated and technically reclaimed sites, although the biomass, average height, and coverage in the dump via TR ranked first. As for soil properties, the soil fertility in the near-natural restored dumps increased significantly and recorded the lowest heavy metal content compared to the other two sites. The various diversities, coverages, biomass, and differences in plant community composition among the three dumps were caused by the alteration in soil properties. Therefore, NNR could be an effective way to improve soil properties and rehabilitate plant communities without impairing plant diversity.

Status and challenges of ecological restoration in coal mining areas in China

China is a country with coal as its main energy source and the coal output exceeds 3.5 billion tons per year. Each year, about 60,000 hectares of land is damaged and the subsided land has accumulated to nearly 4 million hectares due to coal mining activities. Ecological restoration of coal mining areas in China has experienced a development process from land reclamation with the main objective of economic utilisation to ecological restoration with the main objective of ecological protection, from sporadic spontaneous governance to organised governmental regulatory control, and from no law to follow to having laws to follow. This presentation will systematically introduce the temporal and spatial changes of coal development in China over the past 40 years; analyse the features of ecological damage, as well as the difficulties and priorities of ecological restoration in different regions; explain the achievements of ecological restoration in the past 40 years; and list some typical cases of ecological restoration success. Finally, it presents in detail the challenges in theory, technology, funding, policy and management faced by ecological restoration to China’s coal mining areas under the new era in which the country’s ecological environment is protected ahead of economic expediency. In the future, international cooperation is the key to achieve ecological enhancement and restoration of mining areas in China.

Sudbury, Ontario, Canada: 40+ years of healing and creating novel functional ecosytems on a smelter-impacted landscape

Sudbury houses major nickel mining and smelter complexes. The impacts of sulphur gases from roast yards before 1928 through to the more modern smelter operations emitting sulphur gases and metal particulates created a barren landscape of ca 17000 ha and an additional 64000 ha of stunted forest. The accumulation of bioavailable and potentially toxic metal levels in the acid surface soils, accompanied by soil erosion, lack of organic matter and soil nutrient depletion, impeded natural vegetation recovery.  The requirement for reduction of emissions (now 95%) from the largest smelter complex led to the construction of the 381 m Superstack employing gas and particle-capture technologies. The stage was set for an assisted landscape recovery program.  Over the past forty plus years the Sudbury Regreening Story, based on effective interaction between community, government, academia and industry, describes the regional transformational program now recognized globally as a model to emulate.  The Sudbury Protocol for technogenic barren landscape restoration has evolved from regreening activities that involved application of dolomitic limestone, fertilizer, seeding of agricultural grasses, legumes and planting of tree seedling to a more complete biodiverse restoration strategy.  By 2018, 3478 ha had received soil amelioration and ca 10 million trees and shrubs had been planted for approximately $32.7 million while employing over 4775 individuals. The outcome of the Regreening Program is a new image for the city and environs which has helped to attract new business enterprises, tourists and encouraged an increased respect for the environment.

A pathway to integrated objective based monitoring at mines to ensure net positive biodiversity outcomes

Land management on mines cannot be effective without useful, reliable information on changes in their environment. Biodiversity inventory is a point-in-time effort to quantify species resources in space. Ecological monitoring is the sequential measurement of ecological systems over time, detecting trends in the components, processes, or functions. Mining companies are required to monitor biodiversity. South African legislation does not prescribe monitoring and provides no guidance from on submitted monitoring. The result is contrasting monitoring of limited value, functioning as repeat inventories with limited decision support capabilities. Confidence in biodiversity monitoring is poor, reducing budgets over time, interrupting long-term data, and reducing data integrity to obsolescence. If an objective based monitoring framework is in place, land management will be informed practically and increase net biodiversity value. Specialist studies and intern programs on mines can compare data across different areas. Legal obligations in terms of environmental, water, biodiversity and closure are integrated. Biodiversity risk assessment results provide further focus. From this point, the site level drivers and specific monitoring objectives are determined. Long-term and short-term key questions are formulated to provide precise results. The monitoring parameters and criteria are determined with supporting monitoring methods and schedules. Finally, the monitoring site determination and plot layout are designed, to obtain the most monitoring and data use efficiency. We present a monitoring framework based on reverse planning principles with objectives addressing key questions to improve biodiversity management through setting up parameters, criteria, and benchmarks in an integrated way.  Results are presented using two case studies.

Applying an adaptive management approach to a wetland rehabilitation project using an urban South African wetland as an example

The uMhlangane River, located in Durban, South Africa, is a highly polluted system that has a significant impact on water quality within the downstream estuary and Durban’s swimming beaches. For this reason, the portion of the uMhlangane River Floodplain located within an area of private open space owned by the Riverhorse Valley Business Estate, was chosen for a wetland rehabilitation project pilot study. The aim of the rehabilitation was to improve the hydrological and vegetation components of the wetland in order to enhance the overall integrity and ecosystem service provision of the system. An adaptive management approach was adopted during the implementation phase of the project, whereby regular ongoing monitoring and implementation support was undertaken by wetland ecologists and engineers. This provided a mechanism for the wetland engineers and ecologists to identify unanticipated enhancements to the rehabilitation plan that were not identified during the rehabilitation planning phase of the project.  After completion of the rehabilitation activities, Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife identified suitable habitat at the Riverhorse Valley wetland for the release of Pickersgill’s Reed Frogs that were captive-bred at Joburg Zoo.  This frog species, listed as ‘Endangered’ by the IUCN, is endemic to central coastal KwaZulu-Natal.  The introduction of these frogs to the Riverhorse Valley wetland and other sites will contribute to achieving the aim of increasing population size and connectivity between populations, and ultimately leading to the frog species being listed as Least Concern.

Restoring degraded forest ecosystems in South India for creating better habitats for wild Asiatic elephants (Elephas maximus): Design parameters, methods, and monitoring

Bandipur National Park is a Protected Area and an important tiger and elephant reserve located in the Western Ghats of South India, a global biodiversity hotspot. Lokkere Reserve Forest abutting the national park is an important buffer habitat and migratory corridor for wild animals, mainly Asiatic elephants. These buffer forests have been highly degraded due to long-term anthropogenic pressures and lower protection status. This presentation discusses efforts over the past nine years in restoring these forests to create healthier habitats for elephants. Project design combined general restoration goals with specific requirements of elephants including potential for foraging, water, shelter, movement ranges, habitat connectivity, etc. Restoration was planned over 10 square kilometres to ensure adequate habitat range. Grass cover, a primary need for elephants, was restored through soil moisture retention measures and dispersal of seeds and rhizomes. Contour trenches and gully plugs helped prevent run-off on hill slopes. As elephants have a multi-floral diet, vegetation surveys helped identify native plants browsed by elephants. Vegetation restoration mainly followed assisted natural regeneration principles, with species gaps addressed through seed and sapling introduction. As water is a key requirement for elephants, multiple small water bodies were made across the project area. Revival of fast-growing pioneer tree species helped improve canopy cover. Restoration activities were implemented by indigenous community members with good traditional knowledge of elephants. Habitat usage by elephants was monitored based on advice of elephant biologists, through visual sightings, and indirect evidence. Increase in habitat usage was observed, corresponding to the restoration progression.

Ecological impacts of the Eurasian Beaver Reintroduction Programme

After an absence of 400 years the Eurasian Beaver, Castor fiber, was translocated back to Scotland in 2009 and granted protected species status in 2019, securing the future of this keystone species to Scotland. This is the first formal reintroduction of a mammal to the United Kingdom and follows decades of investigation, public debate, a rigorous five-year trial, and an unlicensed release. The decision to re-establish this species in Scotland was centred upon the beavers’, overall very positive influence on biodiversity, including species abundance and diversity, through creating new habitats, changing ecosystems, and provisioning ecosystem services. Nonetheless, such habitat changes in the semi-natural landscape had some adverse localised consequence for some species, and a wide range of interesting socio-economic impacts. The Scottish Beaver Trial also stimulated and informed wider debate on ecological restoration and reintroduction projects and heightened public awareness of these topics. This talk will explore the process, challenges and impact of the beaver translocation with specific reference to ecological restoration, including the conduct of monitoring and evaluation, population management solutions, and how the programme has influenced wider thinking on “re-wilding” and re-establishing ecosystem health.

Rebuilding orangutan homes: Community-based, multi-sector, landscape-scale tropical peat swamp forest restoration

The Borneo Orangutan Survival Foundation’s (BOSF) vision is “the realization of Bornean orangutan and habitat conservation with the community’s participation”. BOSF Mawas Conservation Program, Central Kalimantan, works towards protecting a single hydrological peat-dome area – 309,000 hectares, which is the natural habitat of ~2,550 wild orangutans surrounded by 53 villages. Tropical peatland ecosystems have some of highest rates of degradation world-wide, through drainage, logging, fire, and land conversion to agriculture, oil-palm, and paper-pulp. Tropical peatland degradation results in the annual release of huge volumes of GHG, with devastating local air pollution. The Mawas area has suffered 50% forest cover loss since 1990. BOSF Mawas (established in 2002) has partnered with international peatland restoration efforts, increasing our knowledge capacity, technical expertise, and field activities: canal blocking (177 small canals blocked in 9 villages), community-based fire management (16 villages participated over 13 years), seedling nursery programs (established in 18 villages), reforestation and ANR activities (several hundred hectares), and annual landscape-scale environmental monitoring (120,000 ha peat, hydrology, vegetation, fuel and fire – 2010 to date). Nearer to villages, we priortise alternative livelihood development (programs established in 22 villages), and community empowerment and education (programs established in 8 villages). With this capacity and knowledge, we have designed a new project – ‘Rebuilding orangutan homes’, which prioritises holistic, integrative restoration efforts. Whilst BOSF’s ultimate goal is to ensure sustainable wild orangutan populations, we are aware that this cannot be achieved without applying an interdisciplinary, multi-sector, community-based, landscape-scale approach.

Rewilding with keystones: Using bison and fire to restore North American grasslands

Native grasslands have been declining in North America since the 1880s, attributed to elimination of bison (Bison bison) and wildfire, introduction of non-native agronomic grass species, and suppression of fires set by Indigenous people. Since less than 3% of historic grasslands remain in North America, restoring a keystone species linked to grassland resiliency is a conservation priority. Restoring native grasslands (also called prairies) is a powerful climate-change adaptation strategy, because native grasslands sequester more carbon more rapidly than non-native, agricultural grasslands. Extensive paleoecological evidence of bison use of North American prairies and Indigenous burning exists. Bison, primarily grass-eating species, increase prairie ecological resiliency and biodiversity. Bison are a keystone species and an ecosystem engineer because their grazing patterns, which include several hundred-mile seasonal migrations, intensively alter the biophysical environment. Bison fertilize the soil with their urine and horn-up saplings and shrubs, keeping prairies open. Bison presence improves soil resources, changes plant and animal composition, and increases biodiversity and energy cycling, thereby creating communities more resilient to climate change. However, to be ecologically effective, bison must be wild and free-ranging. Captive bison have similar impacts as domestic cattle, producing over-grazed, ecologically degraded pasture conditions, damaging even large ranges. Fire improves native grass communities’ vigor, including their resiliency to climate change. While Indigenous people long have seen the bison as central to their world, Euro-American scientists and managers only recently acknowledged this species’ full importance. Subsequent management and legislative actions, including bison reintroductions and prescribed burning, may facilitate prairie restoration.

Stakeholder perceptions of marine restoration: Beliefs, preferences, and supporting actions

Aiming to reverse loss and limit further habitat degradation, International and European policies have put restoration at the top of their agenda, incorporating high-level policy objectives such as the protection of 10% of marine habitats and the restoration of 15% of damaged ecosystems. While there are many widely publicly supported terrestrial (e.g. forest restoration) and land-coast interface (e.g. sand dunes) restoration projects, ecosystem restoration as a concept and practice is lagging behind for many strictly marine ecosystems of many European countries. There is also limited understanding of what the stakeholders involved with the use, management and protection of marine ecosystems know about marine restoration. How committed to protection and restoration of damaged ecosystems are they? Within the MERCES project, the first European H2020 project to focus exclusively on marine restoration concerning a number of key ecosystems, we investigated stakeholder perceptions about restoration of degraded marine ecosystems, most of which we do not usually get to see. We are looking at preferences and reasons behind social acceptance of conservation and restoration. A European survey was conducted based on an anonymous on-line questionnaire targeting government, NGOs, researchers, and marine users. Survey results indicate that while stakeholders in general agree that marine restoration can reverse negative human impacts there is some heterogeneity in their degree of agreement. There are clear favourites (e.g. many favouring higher targets or preferably supporting local projects) and scepticism over some restorative approaches (e.g. recreation elsewhere is not considered a solution by many stakeholde

Effects of marine restoration on ecosystem services

Since the inception of the Marine Ecosystem Restoration in Changing European Seas (‘MERCES’) Project in July 2016, more than 130 restoration activities have been initiated across 12 European Countries with the aim of restoring regionally and internationally threatened and important marine and coastal habitats. Nevertheless, whilst restoration activities are widespread globally, the extent to which restoration actions result in a change in the delivery of ecosystem services is largely unknown. In this talk we will explore the link between marine habitat restoration and ecosystem service delivery within the European seas, drawing from MERCES and 80 additional restoration projects. We compare and contrast the delivery of ecosystem services between degraded and restored habitats; explore the link between specific restoration activities and ecosystem service delivery and consider the spatial scale of the benefits. Finally, we assess the degree to which changes in ecosystem services are quantified and monitored, or not. Trends, as well as gaps, in knowledge will be discussed and illustrated through case studies and spatial maps.

Principles and key concepts for ecological restoration in the deep-sea

The Society of Ecological Restoration updated the International Standards for the Practice of Ecological Restoration, including principles and six key concepts. The aim of this document was to “provide support for the technical application of ecological restoration across geographic and ecological areas to improve biodiversity conservation outcomes for all ecosystems, secure the delivery of ecosystem services, ensure projects are integrated with socio-cultural needs and realities, and contribute to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development”. In this talk we will present work carried out under the MERCES project; in particular how lessons learned from terrestrial and shallow water restoration along with previous deep-sea restoration work can be used to evaluate principles, concepts, and guidelines for ecological restoration of deep-sea ecosystems. We will discuss the challenges posed to describing local native reference ecosystem and identifying and measuring key attributes in the deep-sea using four case studies, requiring different degrees of intervention to assist their natural recovery processes. They include cold-water coral ecosystems in the Azores impacted by deep-water fishing (coral transplantation), soft bottom communities in the Mediterranean impacted by rock drilling activities (natural regeneration), abyssal plain communities in nodule-rich areas of the Pacific of interest to deep-sea mining (replacement with chemically-conditioned artificial nodules), and a hydrothermal vent field in the mid-Atlantic that may also be impacted by deep-sea mining (replacement of structures to speed up the development of hydrothermal vent chimneys). We will also discuss knowledge gaps, time scales, uncertainties, and challenges to deep sea restoration.

Marine restoration and MERCES Key Habitats/Species: Approaches, timescales, bottlenecks, and up-scaling

In the context of legislated marine restoration goals and new and on-going initiatives, and as part of the background preparation work in a wide variety of MERCES project restoration actions, a detailed review of restoration efforts was undertaken on targeted European habitat/species. Part of this review has focussed on principal techniques and methods used in restoration actions, innovative approaches, major barriers/deal breakers, solutions to up-scaling to the level of degradation, and relevant timescales to restoration. The targeted habitat/species included kelp forests in Norway, Cystoseira forests in Spain, seagrass meadows in Norway, the Baltic (both Zostera marina) and the Mediterranean (Posidonia oceanica), Pinna nobilis in Croatia, coralligenous habitats in Spain, red corals in Italy, sponges in Italy, deep sea corals in the Azores and deep-sea seamounts in Italy. Techniques ranged from regeneration to transplantation and facilitation (e.g. by introducing mussels with seagrass) using different life-history stages or methods. Restoration is still in its infancy for some species and new protocols are being developed for deep waters. Time scales to restoration vary widely between ecosystems from months to years (kelp, sponges, some seagrasses), to decades (some seagrasses and corals), to multi-decades or centuries (deep-sea corals). Deal-breakers commonly depend on target species characteristics, the methods and techniques used, site parameters, but also the continued absence of threats. Up-scaling presents a number of challenges but will need an approach using a family of restorative activities (e.g. threat removal, unassisted regeneration, remediation, good management) combined with technological innovations, science-industry solutions, and citizen science/volunteering support.

Water governance at source: equity, ownership and restoration at grassroots

The Working for Water Programme

South Africa’s national Working for Water (WfW) programme began in October 1995 and has grown to be country’s biggest conservation programme. It has spawned many associated programmes, including the Working on Fire, Working for Wetlands, Working for Ecosystems and the Value-Added Industries programmes. A primary focus is on the labour-intensive control of invasive plants. WfW has provided work opportunities for over 50,000 participants per annum and has cleared over 3,2 million hectares of land (=50% of Ireland), with almost 10 million hectares of further follow-up work. The programme has strengthened with the promulgation of the Alien and Invasive Species Regulations. The full implementation of bio-security legislation will be critical to achieving the prevention, control and restoration for biological invasions. Biological control is playing an increasing role. We are intensifying a search-and-destroy capacity for emerging invasive species. Strides are also being made in our focus on controlling invasive plants in mountainous and riparian areas, because of their impacts on ecosystem services. We are escalating our use of fire as a measure of control.  Incentivising good land-use practices is increasing. There is a major focus on value-added industries, using invasive biomass to make products useful to Government (notably fire-proof buildings). This is set to radically change the efficacy of our programme. There are also foci on other taxa, such as the polyphagous shot-hole borer, the Indian house crow, mice on Marion Island, and other destructive invasive species. Bureaucratic procedures have inhibited the programme, and we are looking at an optimized institutional arrangement.

Plenary Opening Remarks

Grassland conservation and restoration in China: Achievements and outlook

China’s grassland area is nearly 400 million hectares, which is the largest green ecological area in China. The Chinese Government pays high attention to grassland conservation, makes it an important part of building ecological stability, and has continuously increased its support. In accordance with the requirements put forward by Chinese President Xi Jinping to coordinate the management of mountain, river, forest, farmland, lake, and grassland systems, we have taken a series of measures to strengthen grassland conservation and restoration and have achieved obvious results. The tendency toward ecological deterioration of grasslands in China has been initially curbed, the grassland ecological environment has gradually improved, and the utilization of grassland resources has become more reasonable. But at the same time, the grassland ecosystem in China is still fragile, and the situation of grassland degradation in some places remains grim. We need to continue to maintain strategic confidence and continue to strengthen grassland conservation. Next, we will take the following measures: first, enhancing top-level design by improving policies, amending laws, and conducting long-term planning; second, strengthening the management of grassland resources according to laws; third, implementing more grassland restoration projects; fourth, promoting rational use of grassland resources; fifth, strengthening grassland monitoring and improving grassland statistical systems; and sixth, increasing the investment in grassland science and technology.  Meanwhile, we will strengthen cooperation with relevant countries, share and exchange successful experiences in grassland conservation and restoration, actively participate in global ecological governance, and jointly build a better home for mankind.

Where have all the flowers gone? Grassland diversity loss in South Africa and implications for restoration

Habitat transformation through land-use change threatens the persistence of many grassland ecosystems worldwide. Restoration is often applied successfully to restore the ecosystem functions after a major disturbance, but the plant diversity endpoint is difficult to predict as we have a poor understanding of the factors that lead to species losses per unit area of transformed grasslands. The aim of this study was to make use of untransformed benchmark sites in the ancient biodiverse grasslands of South Africa to determine how transformation influences the species richness of grassland ecosystems. Floristic data were sampled at 18 sites representing land-use changes with varying disturbance intensities (i.e. communal pastures, mine tailings, plantations, urban open spaces, home gardens, crop fields, and eroded areas). Floristic diversity of four plots was sampled within each of the 18 transformed grassland sites, paired with four plots in each adjacent untransformed benchmark site. Our results highlight that grassland endemic and threatened species are most affected, especially those growth forms are less tolerant to soil disturbance, such as geophytes. Long-lived, shade intolerant grassland forb species have evolved in open grassy habitats and contribute considerably to the phylogenetic and functional diversity of these ecosystems but are most at risk of being displaced by alien invasives in disturbed habitat. An understanding of which land-use disturbances filter out which groups of species and identifying indigenous disturbance-tolerant species that may potentially facilitate other more sensitive species could inform restoration strategies in South African grasslands.

Long-Term Success of Different Intervention Measures in Grassland Restoration

Evaluation of long-term ecological restoration projects is indispensable to effectively assess recovery after intervention and validate successful re-establishment of the targeted species or ecosystems. Main goals of restoration are to restore biodiversity and ecosystem processes. Higher biodiversity generally provides higher functional diversity, and both are crucial to reach similar levels of ecosystem processes as the targeted ecosystem. Recently, the concept of ecosystem multifunctionality, integrating biodiversity and multiple ecosystem processes, gained importance. However, ecosystem multifunctionality has so far rarely been used to evaluate long-term restoration success. We assessed how ecosystem multifunctionality, calculated from above- and belowground, biotic and abiotic functions, differs between three restoration measures of increasing intervention intensity (harvest only≤topsoil removal≤topsoil removal+propagules). We compared restored grasslands with intensively managed grasslands (initial state) and semi-natural grasslands (target state) 22 years after initial restoration interventions. Our results show the potential of the three restoration measures for restoring grassland multifunctionality. Not only microbial, faunal, and plant diversity successfully developed towards the targeted species-rich grassland ecosystems, but also high levels of ecosystem processes (e.g. nitrogen mineralization) were re-established in the long run. All three restoration measures significantly improved belowground biodiversity and ecosystem processes similar to the one of the target grassland ecosystems. However, aboveground biodiversity and ecosystem functions clearly differed among restoration treatments, with low intervention intensity failing to reach high levels of the targeted grassland ecosystem. Consequently, our study demonstrates that higher intensities of intervention are needed to re-establish grassland multifunctionality. The negative effects of topsoil removal are outweighed in the long run.

Managing temperate grassland and developing and restoration enterprise in Victoria, Australia

The process of developing a restoration enterprise based on funding through biodiversity offsets though purchase and restoration of land containing threatened temperate grassland on the Victorian Volcanic Plains of Victoria, Australia will be described. Eighty ha of land was purchased and permanently protected as it contained a high-quality example of threatened temperate grassland, albeit with significant weed cover, of which less than 1% remains in Victoria. Funding was obtained through offset funds from developers and came with six separate management plans demonstrating that the available offsets were adequate to compensate for the losses from development. The six management plans for different portions of the site had varying requirements that were integrated into a general management and monitoring plan. Site-wide procedures were developed to ensure that the requirements of each individual management plan are met while implementing effective management for the entire site. Biomass control is essential in temperate grasslands for maintaining flora and fauna diversity so regular fire or grazing is essential. The management process primarily requires regular burning cycled through the site and weed control is focussed on targeting weeds after burning because it is then most efficient and effective.  An overview of the management and monitoring plan will be presented to illustrate the complexity of obtaining offset funding for protecting and restoring threatened vegetation and habitats. The long term aim of being a significant and reliable source of seed for direct seeding of new temperate grasslands in the local area will also be discussed.

Functional traits predict herbaceous responses to land-use intensities in the grassy biomes of South Africa

Disturbance alters the taxonomic and functional composition of vegetation. In disturbed ecosystems, plant fitness (i.e. survival, growth and reproduction) is dependent on local environmental conditions such as climate, fire, and herbivory. Interconnected effects of land-use intensity and local environmental stressors on herbaceous vegetation resistance and resilience are poorly understood in the grassy biomes of South Africa. A functional-trait approach was used to define traits related to vegetation resistance and resilience across three disturbance gradients in grasslands and savannas. At each grassland and savanna site, areas of cultivation, urban open space and mining sites were sampled, all of which covered three land-use intensities (i.e. old growth, hybrid, and novel ecosystems). Measures of functional trait loss were used to evaluate vegetation resistance and resilience to land-use intensity combined with local environmental stressors. Compared to the more resilient grassy savanna ecosystem, the grassland sites showed considerable losses in the functional trait pool, especially from the hybrid to the novel ecosystem state. Both biomes are seasonal, fire-driven grassy ecosystems and yet they respond invariably to land-use intensification. Functional traits in the grasslands are mostly related to below-ground storage organs to survive natural disturbances, including frost. This trait pool may persist in hybrid states but disappears with land-use intensification related to soil disturbance. Savannas host a much larger trait pool, which buffers the system against both anthropogenic and natural disturbances. Delineating the functional traits related to plant fitness should allow for meaningful contributions to restoration efforts, provided that local environmental adaptations are considered.

Community-based seed production for large scale restoration: Socio-ecological challenges

Direct seeding is a well-recognized technique to reintroduce native herbaceous plants for restoration of grasslands and savannas. Due to low seed viability and germination, high seeding density is recommended to enhance restoration success. Since 2012, we have tested and developed seed harvesting, handling, and planting techniques for dozens of herbaceous species in the Brazilian savanna. Based on this developing demand for direct seeding, local communities have supplied seed for restoring 200 hectares within central Brazil since 2016. We identified socio-ecological challenges and possible solutions to improve community-based seed production of herbaceous plants for restoration. First, scientific knowledge of plant taxonomy, phenology, seed production and germination of herbaceous plants in tropical grasslands and savannas are extremely limited. Since native herbaceous plants are also less commonly used and cultivated than woody species, local knowledge on their ecology is also limited. We have developed active research with seed collectors to establish techniques, practices, and prices for marketing seed of 14 herbaceous species. Second, native seed production has strengthened the household livelihoods of 66 collectors who have supplied more than eight tonnes of seed and generated USD 50,000. However, the restoration market is still incipient and not well structured. At the same time, in Brazil, plant material trade is heavily regulated based on bureaucratic and technical standards. Although the herbaceous seed supply for restoration can be a community development strategy linked with biodiversity conservation, institutional systems, applied research, and policies must develop approaches to upscale local capacities, knowledge, and technologies to overcome seed shortage.

Identifying priority species for grassland restoration – a conceptual framework illustrated for south Brazilian subtropical grasslands

Seed limitation has been recognized as a general restriction for restoration of tropical and subtropical grasslands, making seed introduction necessary for recovery of these systems. This contrasts with reality: at current, seeds of native grassland species are practically unavailable in most regions, which impedes the upscaling of restoration efforts. A first step towards the establishment of seed production and distribution infrastructure is the definition of priority species for restoration. Using species-rich subtropical grasslands in southern Brazil as a case study, we here present a framework for the definition of priority species. Starting with regional species pools of different grassland regions, we apply several filters based on biological characteristics of the species and relevance for specific restoration objectives in distinct settings, for example in privately owned grazed grassland and in ungrazed grassland in protected areas. Data bases for this are published studies on vegetation in well-conserved and degraded areas, species distribution data, trait data, and information on forage value of grassland species. This allows us to identify from a species pool of more than 900, a manageable number of species that are of particular relevance for restoration in the different grassland regions and for which research on propagation and establishment is now a second step. The explicit inclusion of criteria related to grassland productivity helps to increase stakeholder participation into restoration projects. Systematic approaches such as ours are fundamental to create a sound scientific basis for the challenging restoration aims in tropical and subtropical regions.

A 10-year case study of tropical grassland restoration using a whole-turf translocation method

Integration of economic activities with environmental integrity is the greatest contemporary challenge, especially in the case of mining activities. In Central Africa, southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo and adjoining regions in the north of Zambia, called the “Copperbelt”, comprise hundreds of copper-cobalt outcrops. Cu-Co outcrops present original grassland communities with over 600 metallophytes, including 56 endemic taxa. This unique vegetation includes a diversity of life forms, including taxa having developed woody underground system as xylopods. Most outcrops have now been allocated to mining companies and are expected to be irreversibly impacted in the coming decades. While pristine metalliferous habitats are threatened by mining operations, the two plant communities, i.e. the steppic savanna and the steppes, benefit from a conservation program. A concrete ecosystem-scale conservation option is currently considered through ecological restoration, using the whole-turf translocation of plant communities. Short-term experiments showed that the main structure of steppes is recovered after two years, whereas for the steppic savanna, weeds are excessive and targeted species (i.e., xylopods) are missing. This study evaluates the success of the whole-turf translocation of plant communities after 10-years of restoration of copper-cobalt ecosystems in order to provide guidelines for practitioners.

Disturbance, dominance & disaster: Heavyweights in structuring herbaceous savanna communities.

Alterations of historic disturbances are pervasive in their impacts on vegetation. This is especially relevant in managed grasslands sensu lato, where often only depauperate herbivore suites persist. Annual (from 2006) monitoring of herbaceous vegetation in the savannas of the Kruger National Park (KNP), South Africa, revealed that ten years of herbivore exclusion had no effect on plant richness, and little effect on dominance. To examine more widely the thesis that grazing impacts richness via its effects on plant dominance, we conducted a meta-level analysis comparing results from 252 grazing exclosure experiments globally. Contrary to prevailing theory, we found that the effect of grazing on richness is negatively correlated to the effect of grazing on dominance, and not to MAP. In 2015/16 KNP experienced one of its worst droughts on record. For the decade prior to this, sampling plots were dominated by a single herbivory-resistant, unpalatable grass species. We built on this finding to explore the impact of extreme disturbance on these herbaceous plant communities. In the first two years post-drought (2017/18), the community dominance shifted to palatable grasses and forbs, with a simultaneous increase in plant diversity. This was seen in both grazed and ungrazed plots. The drought, with severe negative short-term impacts, transformed the savanna, potentially increasing available herbivore forage and biodiversity in the long-term. The positive, unexpected impact of drought supports the notion that large disturbances can enhance habitats, and that restoration efforts need not focus only on replicating pre-disturbance ecosystems.

Drought-tolerant savanna forbs: Comparing diversity and function between livestock and wild herbivore sites

Tropical grassy biomes are resilient to disturbances with which they evolved. Changing the nature of disturbances, e.g. replacing diverse herbivore communities with single domestic grazers, should change plant community structure and ecosystem functioning. Furthermore, projected future climate will increase the frequency and severity of drought events, which will intensify disturbances such as overgrazing. Understanding the combined effects of drought and herbivory on species diversity and function is important to inform restoration strategies. Forbs contribute most to herbaceous diversity in grassy biomes, although their contribution to resilience is poorly understood. In a drought-affected semi-arid savanna, we linked forb species and functional diversity across land-use types representing opposite herbivore diversity and intensity. Herbivore intensity significantly affected forb species, but not functional trait composition. Several forb species tolerated drought conditions at both sites, although only a few could maintain their dominance after drought release. Others were not recorded during the drought but responded significantly to drought release. Certain plant functional traits dominated during the drought but failed to persist after the drought. Drought-tolerant forb species and traits were limited and dissimilar across herbivore diversity and intensity sites. Our results suggest that species and functional traits are equally important for drought-tolerant forb communities, although the identification of species and traits suitable to understand the combined effects of herbivory and drought remains poorly understood, even in systems that evolved with such disturbances. Narrowing down the species and traits adapted to herbivory under increasing drought events, is believed to inform restoration attempts in dynamic semi-arid ecosystems.

Mitigating bush encroachment via habitat manipulation: Ecological cascade effects

African savannas are characterized by a mosaic of trees and grass. The ratio of trees and grasses exists along a continuous gradient in savannas, resulting in savannas that range from open, grassy savannas to denser, closed-canopy savannas. However, climate change is leading to woody thickening in African savannas, and predictions suggest that by 2100 savannas will become forests, thereby threatening the ecosystem services provided by savannas. To combat this woody thickening, many land managers across South Africa have implemented large-scale (>100 ha), decades-long tree clearing in an effort to maintain areas of low tree densities. However, the implications of these habitat manipulations for herbivore communities are unknown. Thus, we aimed to identify how tree clearing influenced herbivore community composition. We used herbivore counts from survey data collected in a South African savanna from both the wet and dry seasons that link with savanna vegetation structure (i.e. tree-grass ratio). We used model-based clustering to identify unique herbivore-vegetation structure states. The model-based clustering revealed that both bush encroached areas and large-scale tree cleared areas result in states that have depauperate wildlife communities compared to intermediate woody states. This suggests that both the effects of bush encroachment and the implemented management practices have similar, negative effects for herbivores. Thus, to restore savanna ecosystem functioning, our results suggest that degraded, cleared areas should be restored and that savanna management should strive to maintain an intermediate woody density

Theoretical basis for restoration of humid grasslands

Humid grasslands in South Africa comprise diverse assemblages of grass and forb species typically growing on relatively infertile soils and are maintained by regular defoliation. Temporal species turnover appears low in undisturbed grassland, with plant longevity strongly influencing both grass and forb species dynamics. Recruitment of new seedlings is rare in the face of severe above- and belowground competition for resources. Long-term research focused on defoliation and soil nutrient addition has revealed that increased soil nutrient levels severely impact species richness, while reduction in defoliation frequency has a similar effect. Nitrogen addition, on its own and in conjunction with phosphorus, increases productivity at the expense of richness. Likewise, reduction in fire frequency and/or defoliation in the growing season reduces richness in the presence of increased aboveground biomass. Species loss in the presence of increased soil nutrients and/or reduced fire and defoliation frequencies can be rapid (2-5 years). Studies and observation of abandoned crop lands and revegetated opencast mines reveal an extremely low recruitment of indigenous grasses and forbs, with secondary succession commonly stalling at a stage dominated by grazing resistant tall grasses that resist invasion by other species. Contrary to common perceptions, many indigenous grasses exhibit high seed viability, raising the possibility of reseeding to accelerate the secondary succession process, provided post-seeding management is geared towards facilitating species richness, including optimum (low) soil nutrient status and optimum defoliation frequencies (fire and/or mowing and/or non-selective grazing). Management should be geared towards avoiding dominance by grazing resistant species that resist invasion.